br Detection and possible treatments for prostate cancer

Detection and possible treatments for prostate cancer PC can be diagnosed, by screening for prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and after diagnosis, treatments may include intense observation, radical prostatectomy, radiation, chemotherapy, hormone therapy or vaccination depending on the type and stage of cancer (Siegel et al., 2016). Low APN levels have been detected in PC patients; therefore, elevating APN levels in PC patients may be a useful therapeutic strategy. This could serve to slow the process of prostate carcinogenesis and may also lower the overall risk from the cancer. Previous literature suggests that a low calorie diet and/or fat intake, a Mediterranean-like diet, and physical exercise, help in supporting APN levels inside the body, in addition to stimulating expression of its receptors (Ziemke and Mantzoros, 2010, Lee et al., 2015). In a study reported in 2010 by Kriketos et al. (2004), it was found that physical exercise caused a very significant increase in APN levels (260%) in overweight males after approximately one week of moderately intense physical training. This suggests that short-term reasonable exercise training can induce APN, and this may help to reduce prostate cancer in overweight males.
Summary and future prospective
Funding/Support
Conflict of interest statement
Introduction Adiponectin is a 30kDa hormone secreted primarily by adipocytes (Hu et al., 1996, Scherer et al., 1995). In its full-length form of adiponectin consists of an N-terminal signal sequence, a collagenous domain and a C-terminal globular region (Fruebis et al., 2001). Adiponectin levels in adipose tissue and blood plasma tend to be lower in obese subjects (Arita et al., 1999, Hu et al., 1996). Growing evidence suggests that adiponectin is an important regulator of Brefeldin A mg metabolism and insulin sensitivity (Maeda et al., 1996, Yamauchi et al., 2001). Adiponectin has also been found to possess anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerotic and anti-angiogenic properties (Brakenhielm et al., 2004, Goldstein and Scalia, 2004, Yokota et al., 2000). Two adiponectin receptors (AdipoR1 and AdipoR2) have been recently identified. Both receptors contain seven transmembrane domains that are structurally and functionally distinct from G protein-coupled receptors (Yamauchi et al., 2003). The receptors differ in their binding preference for adiponectin isoforms, and both adiponectin receptors are differently distributed in tissue. AdipoR1 is abundantly expressed in skeletal muscles and has a high affinity for the globular form of adiponectin. AdipoR2 is found mainly in the liver and has a higher affinity for full-length adiponectin (Yamauchi et al., 2003). Emerging evidence shows that the cellular effects of adiponectin are mediated by the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) pathway, the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) pathway, or by activating p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) (Deepa and Dong, 2009). The relationship between nutritional status and reproductive success in animals has been studied for many years. Considerable evidence has been accumulated to implicate the existence of a common endocrine system that controls metabolism and the reproductive system. A growing body of evidence indicates that adiponectin belongs to a group of hormones that regulate metabolic status and reproduction. Adiponectin influences the reproductive system by exerting central effects on the hypothalamus–pituitary axis, inhibiting GnRH (Wen et al., 2008) and GnRH-induced LH secretion (Rodriguez-Pacheco et al., 2007, Lu et al., 2008). Both types of receptors are expressed in GT1-7 hypothalamic GnRH neuron cells (Wen et al., 2008) and in rat and porcine pituitary glands (Rodriguez-Pacheco et al., 2007, Kiezun et al., 2013). Several lines of evidence suggest that adiponectin also influences the reproductive system by exerting peripheral effects on the ovary and uterus. Adiponectin regulates periovulatory remodeling of the ovarian follicles and steroid synthesis as well as the inflammatory response of endometrial cells (Ledoux et al., 2006, Takemura et al., 2006, Chabrolle et al., 2007, Maleszka et al., 2014). Some studies suggest that adiponectin has biological implications for fertility (Mitchell et al., 2005). In particular, high circulating adiponectin levels have been described as being associated with IFV success (Bersinger et al., 2006), and plasma adiponectin is reduced in women with endometriosis (Takemura et al., 2005) and endometrial cancer (Dal Maso et al., 2004). Those findings suggest that adiponectin exerts certain effects on the endometrium. The observation that porcine plasma adiponetin levels change during the course of the oestrous cycle additionally implies that adiponectin secretion is regulated by gonadal steroids (Maleszka et al., 2014). The presence of the adiponectin system (adiponectin, adiponectin receptors) in the porcine endometrium and myometrium during the oestrous cycle and the possible effect of the phase of the cycle on adiponectin, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 concentrations have not been investigated to date. For this reason, the aim of the current study was designed to compare the expression levels of: (1) adiponectin, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 genes by quantitative real-time PCR and (2) adiponectin, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 proteins by Western blotting and fluorescent immunohistochemistry in the endometrium and myometrium on days 2–3, 10–12, 14–16, and 17–19 of the oestrous cycle.