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  • br Research limitations and strengths br Implication of the

    2018-10-22


    Research limitations and strengths
    Implication of the study
    Conclusions
    Introduction: current world toilet habits Home design is a unique, collaborative yet challenging exercise for architects, designers and builders because it trp channels involves design issues relating to personal and familial spatial requirements. These spatial necessities include a balance of private and social spaces as well as functional rooms or utility spaces (Othman, 2016; Heathcote, 2012; Smith, 1994; Lawrence, 1987; Altman and Chemers, 1984). Many of these specific requirements are derived from various influences such as generational cohorts׳ preferences (Mollaei and Othman, 2013), cultural traditions (Altman and Chemers, 1984) or religious teachings (Omer, 2010). These influences are reflected in the various measures taken to achieve particular objectives, including extending hospitality, ensuring privacy and maintaining modesty (Othman et al., 2015, 2014a, 2014b). Housing designs have transformed considerably over the centuries. Likewise, toilet designs have changed from ancient latrines with basic flush system (Cromwell, 2015; Koloski-Ostrow, 2015; French and Duffy, 2014; Samuels, 2014; Matsui et al., 2003; Pathak, 1995) to advance electronically powered sitting bidets (Cromwell, 2015; Gregory and James, 2006). These days, various versions of sitting and squat toilet designs are developed and manufactured by plumbing companies to meet with different needs from toilet users from diverse cultures and backgrounds (Gregory and James, 2006). Such products are now available to meet with the clients׳ specific needs. Squat latrines, for example, are still widely used, mainly in Asian countries such as in India, Malaysia, Japan and China because of their long cultural traditions of using this toilet system (Ling, 2015b). Mullick and Kumar (2012, p. 617) further developed possible inclusive universal and accessible squat latrines that “offers an ergonomic solution that helps maintaining comfortable squat posture throughout the defecation” and can be used by almost all users. Medical practitioners and researchers argue that the current Western sitting toilet design does not offer proper posture to complete defecation (Ling, 2015a; Sikirov, 2003; Rad, 2002, p. 116) Despite an estimation of 4 billion people (two-third of world population) who still use squat latrines, this toilet system is still relatively unknown to Westerners from countries like North America, Europe and Australia (Ling, 2015b). Cultural traditions and religious teachings have significant influences in the design, location and the way users use the toilets. The Indian traditional vaastu shastra, for example, involves careful site planning and orientation of rooms prior to designing a home (Patra, 2009, 2006). In vaastu shastra, toilets are recommended to be built along the Northern and Southern axes and located towards the Western sides; avoiding constructing any toilets, septic tanks or kitchen towards the North East side (Patra, 2014, 2009, 2006). Traditional Buddhist׳s feng shui teachings on the other hand, recommend that toilets are not located at the centre of the house because it is considered as the central focus or heart of chi that provides balance and vitality of a family (Too, 1999). Physical hygiene and cleanliness at home are part of important doctrines in many cultural traditions and religious faiths. Many religions relate cleanliness as an embodiment to a person׳s ‘moral-existential system’ and spiritual purity (Preston and Ritter, 2012; Zhong et al., 2010; Zhong and Liljenquist, 2006; Looy, 2004; Rozin et al., 1999). Water has been widely used for bodily cleansing as part of religious ritual washing and symbolises one׳s purification (e.g. Islam, Judaism and Zoroastrianism), sacredness (e.g. Hinduism and Shinto), wealth (e.g. Buddhism) and cleansing of one׳s sin (or seeking spiritual refreshment and blessing) (e.g. Christianity) (Ahmad, 2015; Østergaard, 2012; Zhong et al., 2010; Abrams, 2003; Too, 1999). Toilet paper on the other hand, was initially used by the Chinese around 589 CE, as mentioned by Yan Zhitui, a Chinese scholar, painter and calligrapher (Needham, 1985). The use of toilet paper was only introduced to the Western countries in late 1800s (Cromwell, 2015; Ament, 2007). Joseph Gayetty first commercialised toilet paper in the United States in 1857, which was then followed by Zeth Wheeler who produced perforated toilet paper in 1871 and further by John Kimberly who established Kimberly-Clark Corporation in 1872 (Ament, 2007).